In the nineteenth century, the vast gold and diamond companies in South Africa were controlled by European financiers and colonial powers, primarily British and Dutch (Boer) interests. Figures like Cecil Rhodes became immensely wealthy by establishing mining monopolies.

The miners were almost exclusively black Africans. Their lives were harsh and exploitative. They were recruited from across the region and forced to work under dangerous conditions deep underground for very low wages. To control them, they were confined to closed compounds, segregated from the outside world, and subjected to strict discipline and body searches. They had no political rights and were subjected to discriminatory laws that prevented them from owning land or moving freely. This system of cheap, controlled labour was essential for the profitability of the mines and laid the foundation for the apartheid system.